Are missing. To date the ILAE classification of epileptic seizures48 and epilepsy syndromes49 has been used too loosely in the context of studies conducted in sub-Saharan Africa. Not only seizure semiology, the description of which due to sociocultural barriers may be incomplete, but important seizure-related issues such as aetiology and concomitant diseases may be relevant for the classification of epilepsy/epileptic seizures in these countries.50 We therefore suggest an adapted more appropriate version of classification of epilepsy/ epileptic seizures for sub-Saharan Africa with special emphasis on ensuing therapeutic and prognostic aspects (Fig. 2).51,52 The classification we propose is based on description of epileptic seizures by the patients and at least one witness, history of seizures with special emphasis on age of onset, associated illness, family history and birth history, as well as a complete neurological examination. The diagnosis is based on clinical symptomatology alone as in most African hospitals electroencephalogram and neuroimaging are not available. The term `primary (-)-Blebbistatin manufacturer generalised seizure’ as opposed to `secondary generalised seizure’ is used to indicate that there is no focal start of the seizure in a patient who otherwise is healthy. 1. Generalised types of epileptic seizures/epilepsy: Generalised epileptic seizures within a specific age range: primary generalised seizures that start within a specific age group (mainly between 6 and 25 years, which is the age group in which most of the genetically Pinometostat biological activity determined epilepsies start). There is no obvious cause for the seizures, encephalopathy (5diffuse brain damage) is absent. There may however be a positive family history, suggesting aNPathogens and Global HealthVOL .NO .WinklerNeurocysticercosis in sub-Saharan AfricaFigure 2 Algorithm on how to classify people with epilepsy/epileptic seizures in resource-poor countries with diagnostic and therapeutic implications. The first question one has to ask is whether there is any evidence of focal neurological signs or even more widespread encephalopathy. If there is, the approach in the two groups is different. In most people, mainly children, with epilepsy with diffuse encephalopathy, diagnostic tests are rarely needed as the extent of the cerebral sequelae is known and the condition is not progressive. In contrast, in people with epilepsy who show focal signs without diffuse encephalopathy further diagnostic steps are essential in order to identify the underlying, potentially treatable cause. If neurological examination is unremarkable, the so-called primary generalised seizures are split according to the age of onset (see text); the two groups have a different diagnostic and therapeutic approach. Patients with primary generalised seizures that start outside 6?5 years are more likely to have cerebral lesions compared to those with seizures that start within the range of 6?5 years, where genetically determined epilepsy prevails. The former therefore need further investigation. In all four groups, treatment depends mainly on the age of the patient, seizure activity, seizure frequency, the presence of mental handicap and the presence of focal neurological signs, bearing in mind that the choice of antiepileptic medication is limited. People with epilepsy/epileptic seizures due to NCC can potentially be found in all four groups, but are mainly seen in patients with generalised late-onset seizures or in patients with generalised sei.Are missing. To date the ILAE classification of epileptic seizures48 and epilepsy syndromes49 has been used too loosely in the context of studies conducted in sub-Saharan Africa. Not only seizure semiology, the description of which due to sociocultural barriers may be incomplete, but important seizure-related issues such as aetiology and concomitant diseases may be relevant for the classification of epilepsy/epileptic seizures in these countries.50 We therefore suggest an adapted more appropriate version of classification of epilepsy/ epileptic seizures for sub-Saharan Africa with special emphasis on ensuing therapeutic and prognostic aspects (Fig. 2).51,52 The classification we propose is based on description of epileptic seizures by the patients and at least one witness, history of seizures with special emphasis on age of onset, associated illness, family history and birth history, as well as a complete neurological examination. The diagnosis is based on clinical symptomatology alone as in most African hospitals electroencephalogram and neuroimaging are not available. The term `primary generalised seizure’ as opposed to `secondary generalised seizure’ is used to indicate that there is no focal start of the seizure in a patient who otherwise is healthy. 1. Generalised types of epileptic seizures/epilepsy: Generalised epileptic seizures within a specific age range: primary generalised seizures that start within a specific age group (mainly between 6 and 25 years, which is the age group in which most of the genetically determined epilepsies start). There is no obvious cause for the seizures, encephalopathy (5diffuse brain damage) is absent. There may however be a positive family history, suggesting aNPathogens and Global HealthVOL .NO .WinklerNeurocysticercosis in sub-Saharan AfricaFigure 2 Algorithm on how to classify people with epilepsy/epileptic seizures in resource-poor countries with diagnostic and therapeutic implications. The first question one has to ask is whether there is any evidence of focal neurological signs or even more widespread encephalopathy. If there is, the approach in the two groups is different. In most people, mainly children, with epilepsy with diffuse encephalopathy, diagnostic tests are rarely needed as the extent of the cerebral sequelae is known and the condition is not progressive. In contrast, in people with epilepsy who show focal signs without diffuse encephalopathy further diagnostic steps are essential in order to identify the underlying, potentially treatable cause. If neurological examination is unremarkable, the so-called primary generalised seizures are split according to the age of onset (see text); the two groups have a different diagnostic and therapeutic approach. Patients with primary generalised seizures that start outside 6?5 years are more likely to have cerebral lesions compared to those with seizures that start within the range of 6?5 years, where genetically determined epilepsy prevails. The former therefore need further investigation. In all four groups, treatment depends mainly on the age of the patient, seizure activity, seizure frequency, the presence of mental handicap and the presence of focal neurological signs, bearing in mind that the choice of antiepileptic medication is limited. People with epilepsy/epileptic seizures due to NCC can potentially be found in all four groups, but are mainly seen in patients with generalised late-onset seizures or in patients with generalised sei.
