I:10.1371/journal.pone.0059660.tdf 6 129 1516647 2SSD 717.13 1129.17 545.09 1244.Variation 40.82 59.18 47.95 52.(Table 4) and a two-factor model involving the straight distance and number of tributaries (Table 5). Detoured distance had the smallest AIC 
among the three single factors, similar to the result observed with the correlation analysis (Figure 3). However, the calculations based on 15 pairs (when TL2 was excluded) indicated that straight distance showed the least AIC (Table 4). By twofactor analysis, the straight distance had a greater effect on genetic distance than did the number of tributaries (Table 5). The AIC of this model was not smaller than the single-factor model involving straight distance in the analysis of the 15 pairs (Table 4). Thus, theriverine barrier appeared to have a weak effect on gene flow among populations, except for the Lomami River, which separates TL2 from other populations. The riverine barrier effect was highlighted for gene flow among Anlotinib chemical information bonobo populations in a previous study, and the Lomami River, separating the TL2 population from others, was considered the sole barrier to migration [7]. K162 According to the riverine barrier hypothesis, however, it is difficult to explain why the east cohort showed closer proximity to the west cohort than to the central cohort. In addition, the lower genetic distances among the Iyondji,Figure 3. Relation between genetic distance (FST) and geographical indices. Each pair of seven populations, in all 21 pairs, is dotted as 
a different symbol according to combination of cohorts. (a) Geographical distance between two populations was measured as a straight line. (b) Geographical distance was measured by detouring headwater of big tributaries or lakes. (c) Number of tributaries on the straight-line between two populations. *p,0.05, ***p,0.001. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059660.gGenetic Structure of BonobosTable 3. Correlation between genetic distance (FST) and geographical distance from a specific area to other areas.*p,0.05, **p,0.01. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059660.tSalonga, and Lomako populations (central cohort) than between the Lac Tumba and Malebo populations (west cohort) suggest that the riverine barrier had only a weak effect on genetic distance in the central region. Although all of the large tributaries can be HIV-RT inhibitor 1 custom synthesis regarded as barriers at present, they might not have 1662274 functioned as effective isolation barriers in geological time. An alternative explanation for the observed differentiation in bonobo populations is that the genetic differentiation and historical fragmentation may have been CB-5083 
caused by the locations of refugia during the Pleistocene. Several studies have suggested that the location of forest refugia in the Congo Basin at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; circa 18,000 years ago) was in the central parts of the southern Congo Basin [17,18], whereas other studies have described riparian refugia along the Congo River and its main tributaries [19?1]. Wherever the refugia locations, the present data suggest that the bonobo population dispersed from a limited area along with the expansion of the forest. The barrier effect of rivers during dry periods was probably reduced by their decreased width [22]. Therefore, the evolutionary history of populations during the Pleistocene suggests that present-day tributary systems have had only a small effect on the genetic structure of current bonobo populations. Regarding the Lomami River, neither the detoured distance nor the number of.I:10.1371/journal.pone.0059660.tdf 6 129 1516647 2SSD 717.13 1129.17 545.09 1244.Variation 40.82 59.18 47.95 52.(Table 4) and a two-factor model involving the straight distance and number of tributaries (Table 5). Detoured distance had the smallest AIC among the three single factors, similar 
to the result observed with the correlation analysis (Figure 3). However, the calculations based on 15 pairs (when TL2 was excluded) indicated that straight distance showed the least AIC (Table 4). By twofactor analysis, the straight distance had a greater effect on genetic distance than did the number of tributaries (Table 5). The AIC of this model was not smaller than the single-factor model involving straight distance in the analysis of the 15 pairs (Table 4). Thus, theriverine barrier appeared to have a weak effect on gene flow among populations, except for the Lomami River, which separates TL2 from other populations. The riverine barrier effect was highlighted for gene flow among bonobo populations in a previous study, and the Lomami River, separating the TL2 population from others, was considered the sole barrier to migration [7]. According to the riverine barrier hypothesis, however, it is difficult to explain why the east cohort showed closer proximity to the west cohort than to the central cohort. In addition, the lower genetic distances among the Iyondji,Figure 3. Relation between genetic distance (FST) and geographical indices. Each pair of seven populations, in all 21 pairs, is dotted as a different symbol according to combination of cohorts. (a) Geographical distance between two populations was measured as a straight line. (b) Geographical distance was measured by detouring headwater of big tributaries or lakes. (c) Number of tributaries on the straight-line between two populations. *p,0.05, ***p,0.001. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059660.gGenetic Structure of BonobosTable 3. Correlation between genetic distance (FST) and geographical distance from a specific area to other areas.*p,0.05, **p,0.01. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059660.tSalonga, and Lomako populations (central cohort) than between the Lac Tumba and Malebo populations (west cohort) suggest that the riverine barrier had only a weak effect on genetic distance in the central region. Although all of the large tributaries can be regarded as barriers at present, they might not have 1662274 functioned as effective isolation barriers in geological time. An alternative explanation for the observed differentiation in bonobo populations is that the genetic differentiation and historical fragmentation may have been caused by the locations of refugia during the Pleistocene. Several studies have suggested that the location of forest refugia in the Congo Basin at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; circa 18,000 years ago) was in the central parts of the southern Congo Basin [17,18], whereas other studies have described riparian refugia along the Congo River and its main tributaries [19?1]. Wherever the refugia locations, the present data suggest that the bonobo population dispersed from a limited area along with the expansion of the forest. The barrier effect of rivers during dry periods was probably reduced by their decreased width [22]. Therefore, the evolutionary history of populations during the Pleistocene suggests that present-day tributary systems have had only a small effect on the genetic structure of current bonobo populations. Regarding the Lomami River, neither the detoured distance nor the number of.I:10.1371/journal.pone.0059660.tdf 6 129 1516647 2SSD 717.13 1129.17 545.09 1244.Variation 40.82 59.18 47.95 52.(Table 4) and a two-factor model involving the straight distance and number of tributaries (Table 5). Detoured distance had the smallest AIC among the three single factors, similar to the result observed with the correlation analysis (Figure 3). However, the calculations based on 15 pairs (when TL2 was excluded) indicated that straight distance showed the least AIC (Table 4). By twofactor analysis, the straight distance had a greater effect on genetic distance than did the number of tributaries (Table 5). The AIC of this model was not smaller than the single-factor model involving straight distance in the analysis of the 15 pairs (Table 4). Thus, theriverine barrier appeared to have a weak effect on gene flow among populations, except for the Lomami River, which separates TL2 from other populations. The riverine barrier effect was highlighted for gene flow among bonobo populations in a previous study, and the Lomami River, separating the TL2 population from others, was considered the sole barrier to migration [7]. According to the riverine barrier hypothesis, however, it is difficult to explain why the east cohort showed closer proximity to the west cohort than to the central cohort. In addition, the lower genetic distances among the Iyondji,Figure 3. Relation between genetic distance (FST) and geographical indices. Each pair of seven populations, in all 21 pairs, is dotted as a different symbol according to combination of cohorts. (a) Geographical distance between two populations was measured as a straight line. (b) Geographical distance was measured by detouring headwater of big tributaries or lakes. (c) Number of tributaries on the straight-line between two populations. *p,0.05, ***p,0.001. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059660.gGenetic Structure of BonobosTable 3. Correlation between genetic distance (FST) and geographical distance from a specific area to other areas.*p,0.05, **p,0.01. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059660.tSalonga, and Lomako populations (central cohort) than between the Lac Tumba and Malebo populations (west cohort) suggest that the riverine barrier had only a weak effect on genetic distance in the central region. Although all of the large tributaries can be regarded as barriers at present, they might not have 1662274 functioned as effective isolation barriers in geological time. An alternative explanation for the observed differentiation in bonobo populations is that the genetic differentiation and historical fragmentation may have been caused by the locations of refugia during the Pleistocene. Several studies have suggested that the location of forest refugia in the Congo Basin at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; circa 18,000 years ago) was in the central parts of the southern Congo Basin [17,18], whereas other studies have described riparian refugia along the Congo River and its main tributaries [19?1]. Wherever the refugia locations, the present data suggest that the bonobo population dispersed from a limited area along with the expansion of the forest. The barrier effect of rivers during dry periods was probably reduced by their decreased width [22]. Therefore, the evolutionary history of populations during the Pleistocene suggests that present-day tributary systems have had only a small effect on the genetic structure of current bonobo populations. Regarding the Lomami River, neither the detoured distance nor the number of.I:10.1371/journal.pone.0059660.tdf 6 129 1516647 2SSD 717.13 1129.17 545.09 1244.Variation 40.82 59.18 47.95 52.(Table 4) and a two-factor model involving the straight distance and number of tributaries (Table 5). Detoured distance had the smallest AIC among the three single factors, similar to the result observed with the correlation analysis (Figure 3). However, the calculations based on 15 pairs (when TL2 was excluded) indicated that straight distance showed the least AIC (Table 4). By twofactor analysis, the straight distance had a greater effect on genetic distance than did the number of tributaries (Table 5). The AIC of this model was not smaller than the single-factor model involving straight distance in the analysis of the 15 pairs (Table 4). Thus, theriverine barrier appeared to have a weak effect on gene flow among populations, except for the Lomami River, which separates TL2 from other populations. The riverine barrier effect was highlighted for gene flow among bonobo populations in a previous study, and the Lomami River, separating the TL2 population from others, was considered the sole barrier to migration [7]. According to the riverine barrier hypothesis, however, it is difficult to explain why the east cohort showed closer proximity to the west cohort than to the central cohort. In addition, the lower genetic distances among the Iyondji,Figure 3. Relation between genetic distance (FST) and geographical indices. Each pair of seven populations, in all 21 pairs, is dotted as a different symbol according to combination of cohorts. (a) Geographical distance between two populations was measured as a straight line. (b) Geographical distance was measured by detouring headwater of big tributaries or lakes. (c) Number of tributaries on the straight-line between two populations. *p,0.05, ***p,0.001. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059660.gGenetic Structure of BonobosTable 3. Correlation between genetic distance (FST) and geographical distance from a specific area to other areas.*p,0.05, **p,0.01. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059660.tSalonga, and Lomako populations (central cohort) than between the Lac Tumba and Malebo populations (west cohort) suggest that the riverine barrier had only a weak effect on genetic distance in the central region. Although all of the large tributaries can be regarded as barriers at present, they might not have 1662274 functioned as effective isolation barriers in geological time. An alternative explanation for the observed differentiation in bonobo populations is that the genetic differentiation and historical fragmentation may have been caused by the locations of refugia during the Pleistocene. Several studies have suggested that the location of forest refugia in the Congo Basin at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; circa 18,000 years ago) was in the central parts of the southern Congo Basin [17,18], whereas other studies have described riparian refugia along the Congo River and its main tributaries [19?1]. Wherever the refugia locations, the present data suggest that the bonobo population dispersed from a limited area along with the expansion of the forest. The barrier effect of rivers during dry periods was probably reduced by their decreased width [22]. Therefore, the evolutionary history of populations during the Pleistocene suggests that present-day tributary systems have had only a small effect on the genetic structure of current bonobo populations. Regarding the Lomami River, neither the detoured distance nor the number of.